Still, Xuanzong continued many of Wu's policies, including keeping her reforms in taxation, agriculture, and education. Unlike most young girls in China at this time, Wu was encouraged by her father to read and write and develop the intellectual skills which were traditionally reserved for males. Wu Zetian was one of the longest-lived monarchs (82 years old) in Chinese history. We contribute a share of our revenue to remove carbon from the atmosphere and we offset our team's carbon footprint. Nationality/Culture Five Historical Plays. Empress Wu, or Wu Zhao, challenged the patriarchal system by advocating women's intellectual development and sexual freedom. (February 22, 2023). Alternate Names Wu probably did dispose of several members of her own family, and she ordered the deaths of a number of probably innocent ministers and bureaucrats. Patronage of Buddhism. His rule covered a span of 63 years, a reign lo, Zhao Kuang-yin https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4558/empress-wu-zetian/. Wu decreed that the workmen sculpt the face of the largest of these statues to resemble her and also persuaded the monks of the sanctuary at Luoyang to forge the Big Cloud Book to substantiate her claim as Maitreya. The spirit road causeway to Wus still-unopened tomb lies between two low rises, tipped by watchtowers, known as the nipple hills.. In the largest cave there is a statue called the Grand Vairocana Buddha. Wu Zhao embarked on religious life as a nun in a convent after Li Shimins death in 649. $1.99. 22 Feb. 2023 . Empress Wu Zetian and the Spread of Buddhism (625-705 C.E.) The only woman ever to rule as emperor of China, Wu Zhao (Wu ZeTian) was born in 624 C.E. Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms. Twitchett, Denis, and Howard J. Wechsler. disadvantages of food transportation. Gaozong fell for it and the Empress Wang was put to death. According to the histories of the period, Wu smothered her own week-old daughter by Gaozong and blamed the babys death on Wang, who was the last person to have held her. Her supposed method, moreoveramputating her victims hands and feet and leaving them to drownsuspiciously resembles that adopted by her most notorious predecessor, the Han-era empress Lu Zhia woman portrayed by Chinese historians as the epitome of all that was evil. Her Buddhist supporters interpreted the Madamegha (Great Cloud) sutra to predict a maitreya Buddha (Buddha-to-come) in female form, presumably Wu Zetian herself, who would embody the concept of the cakravartin (wheel-turner, universal emperor, or the ideal man who is king). Determining the truth about this welter of innuendo is all but impossible, and matters are complicated by the fact that little is known of Wus earliest years. This spy system served her well in giving her early warning of any plots in the making and enabled her to take care of threats to her reign before they became actual problems. Empress Wu rose to power through ruthless tactics to move her from the emperor's concubine, to the emperor's consort, and eventually to the position of empress of China. The primary and secondary sources on Wu Zetian are abundant and problematic, reflecting an almost exclusively male authorship that has portrayed her as a beautiful, calculating, brutal woman who ruled China as the only woman emperor in name and in fact. She maintained a stable economy and a moderate taxation for the peasantry. At the age of fourteen, she was selected as a palace maid to Gaozong, then a Prince, and his first spouse and primary consort Xing, who had recently married. They came to power, mostly, by default or stealth; a king had no sons, or an intelligent queen usurped the powers of her useless husband. "The Real Judge Dee: Ti Jen-chieh and the T'ang Restoration of 705," in Asia Major. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. Pomacanthus imperator (emperor angelfish) See CHAETODONTIDAE. Anticipating Wu Zetian's political ambitions, 60,000 flatterersincluding Confucian officials, imperial relatives, Buddhist clergy, tribal chieftains, and commonerssupported the petition to proclaim the Zhou Dynasty with herself as the founding emperor. She graduated from SUNY Delhi in 2018. Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China. Taizong forced the abdication of his own father and disposed of two older brothers in hand-to-hand combat before seizing the throne. Charlemagne (or Charles the Great) was king of the franks from 768 to 814, king of the lombards from 774 to 814, and emperor from 800 to, FOUNDED: c. 1050256 b.c.e. Your Privacy Rights Empress Wu used the intelligence she gathered to pressure some high-ranking officials who were not performing well to resign; others she simply banished or had executed. Encyclopedia.com. Missions from Japan, Korea, and Vietnam arrived at Xi'an bearing tribute and seeking education in Buddhism and Confucianism. In fact, the Tang Dynasty experienced a small interruption with the second Zhou Dynasty (690-705) established by the only female monarch in Chinese history-Empress Wu. Lineage Even if she took full advantage, however, she must have possessed not only looks but remarkable intelligence and determination to emerge, as she did two decades later, as empress. In spite of all of her reforms and the prosperity she brought to the country, Wu was remembered mainly for her crimes against friends and family members - especially the murder of her daughter - and people did not think she was worthy of an inscription. It is a challenge to recover real people from this morass of bias. Wu Zetian came to the throne when she was 67, making her the oldest person ever be crowned. When Gaozong suffered a stroke in 660, the empress made herself the ruler. She ruled for 15 years during the Tang Dynasty and was one of China's most impactful and divisive emperors. Wu (she is always known by her surname) has every claim to be considered a great empress. (Issued by the Empress Dowager Cixi, 1835-1908) And while Chinas imperial chronicles were too rigidly run and too highly developed for Wus name to be simply wiped from their pages, the stern disapproval of the Confucian mandarins who compiled the records can still be read 1,500 years later. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. She also dealt ruthlessly with a succession of rivals, promoted members of her own family to high office, succumbed repeatedly to favoritism, and, in her old age, maintained what amounted to a harem of virile young men. Carved in limestone, the colossal statue is reputed to have been carved in Wus own likeness. Cold, ruthless, and ambitious, the Han dynasty dowager murdered her rival, the beautiful concubine Lady Qi, by amputating all her limbs, turning her into a human swine and leaving her to die in a cesspit. Chen, Jo-shui. 2023 Smithsonian Magazine Yet contemporaries thought that there was more to her than this. Ruizong was also a disappointment to her and so she forced him to abdicate in 690 CE and proclaimed herself Emperor Zeitan, ruler of China, the first and only woman to sit on the Dragon Throne and reign in her own name and by her own authority. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. But several years later, she returned to the palace as Gaozong's concubine and gave birth to sons. emperor angelfish (Pomecanthus imperator) See CHAETODONTIDAE. Traditional historians grudgingly acknowledged that she surpassed her sons, the legitimate heirs, in both vision and statecraft. Most historians believe Wu became intimate with the future Gaozong emperor before his fathers deatha scandalous breach of etiquette that could have cost her her head, but which in fact saved her from life in a Buddhist nunnery. Wu Zhao listened to her minister and considered his argument and then, Rothschild writes, "Wu Zhao, with no intention whatsoever of 'leading the quiet life of a widow', rejected this interpretation and promptly exiled the man to the swampy, disease-ridden, Southland" (109). Map: Wikicommons. Empress Wu proved to be a wise monarch, and in her reign of twenty years she continued many policies and practices of her predecessors. How did she hold on to power? Japanese modern statue of Kannon commemorating | READ MORE. Yet Wu has had a pretty bad press. Wu Zetian's politics can be considered as feminist initiatives to reinforce the legitimacy of women in the political arena. For Wu Zetian, the rise to power and consolidation involved manipulations, murders, and support of the intellectual and religious establishments. She killed her sister, butchered her elder brothers, murdered the ruler, poisoned her mother, the chronicles say. Vol. Kumarajiva's influence on Chinese Buddhist thought was crucial. Wu was the daughter of Wu Jin, a commoner in Kaifeng. Wu Zetian's tough character and good equestrian skills were perceived by observers even when she was a teenager. But is the empress unfairly maligned? Click for Author Information. Princes and ministers loyal to the Tang Dynasty and princes suspected of rebellious motives against her were executed. She did not ask any man's permission to lead these women to Mount Tai; she felt she knew what was best and did it. Under the older regimes, a suggestion or complaint had to go through a number of different offices before it ever reached anyone who could do something about it. Gaozong's wife, Lady Wang, and his former first concubine, Xiao Shufei, were jealous of each other but even more envious of the attention Gaozong paid to Wu. Appears In There are abundant signs that Wu was viewed with deep suspicion by later generations of Chinese. Unlike her predecessors she was fond of the Buddhist community, which led her to build at great expense the Mingtang, or Hall of Light. Empress Wu (Wu Zhao) 627-705 First female monarch Sources Rise to Power. Sexual Life in Ancient China: A Preliminary Survey of Chinese Sex and Society from ca.1500 BC till 1644 AD. The military exams were intended to measure intelligence and decision making and candidates were personally interviewed instead of just being appointed because of family connections or their family's name. World History Encyclopedia. A Japanese example: In the late 7th century, Japans Emperor Shomu and Empress Komyo both were involved in Buddhist buildings. Jiu Tangshu [Old history of the Tang]. Some Rights Reserved (2009-2023) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted. Her significance as an emperor and founder of a new dynasty lies in her redefining of the gender-specific concepts of the emperorship and the Confucian state. Within the Cite this article tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Abdication. Traditionally, only the emperor, as the son-of-heaven, could communicate with heaven and carry out sacrifices to heaven and earth. Although Wu's account claims that Lady Wang murdered her daughter, later Chinese historians all agree that Wu was the murderer and she killed her child to frame Lady Wang. As early as 660 CE, Wu had organized a secret police force and spies in the court and throughout the country. She organized teams to survey the land and build irrigation ditches to help grow crops and redistributed the land so that everyone had an equal share to farm. Illustration. . https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/wu-zetian-624-705, "Wu Zetian (624705) If it still won't be tamed, I'll cut its throat with the knife. In her last years Wu lost influence, although she remained energetic and cruel. 242289. We care about our planet! A brother or a clan grandson at times ascended the throne during usurpation or when the emperor died without issue, but female succession through descent from a daughter was never permitted. Thank you for your help! She replaced Zhongzong with her second son, who became Emperor Ruizong. Such killings were not uncommon among emperors before and after her. To ensure the security of her new reign she had any members of the Tang Dynasty royal family imprisoned (including the future emperor Xuanzong) and proclaimed herself an incarnation of the Maitreya Buddha, calling herself Empress Shengsen which means 'Holy Spirit'. The insurrections had received little popular support and in the years that she dominated politics as empress, empress dowager, and finally as emperor, there were no widespread military unrests. Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the End of the Seventh Century. Justinian. They are regarded as important by historians because they show how far Wu went in trying to create a new world in China under her reign: she even wanted to change the words they used. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1984. Before Smithsonian.com, Dash authored the award-winning blog A Blast From the Past. She later volunteered to tame Taizong's wild horse with an iron whip, hammer, and knife. But if she is observed in the context of the sexuality of male rulers, then the number of her favorites is insignificant. Seen from this perspective, Wu did in fact fulfill the fundamental duties of a ruler of imperial China; Confucian philosophy held that, while an emperor should not be condemned for acts that would be crimes in a subject, he could be judged harshly for allowing the state to fall into anarchy. Meanwhile, the Turks invaded Gansu, and the Tibetans posed a threat to Chinese possessions in Central Asia. Hailing from the Tang dynasty, Empress Wu made some great positive strives for the Tang dynasty, but also got caught up in scandals - a couple even involving murder! In promoting Buddhism over Confucianism and Daoism as the favored state religion, the Empress countered strongly held Confucian beliefs against female rule. Under Wus rule the government was expanded, and many of the new positions were filled through the examination system. "Empress Wu (Wu Zhao) After this event Wu became Empress and shared Imperial power equally with her emperor. The most serious charges against Wu are handily summarized in Mary Andersons collection of imperial scuttlebutt, Hidden Power, which reports that she wiped out twelve collateral branches of the Tang clan and had the heads of two rebellious princes hacked off and brought to her in her palace. It was approached via a mile-long causeway running between two low hills topped with watchtowers, known today as the nipple hills because Chinese tradition holds that the spot was selected because the hills reminded Gaozong of the young Wus breasts. Ch'ien-lung (1711-1799) was the fourth emperor of the Ch'ing, or Manchu, dynasty in China. In 690 C.E., Zetian forced Li Dan to abdicate the throne to her, and declared herself the founding empress of the Zhou dynasty. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. She was very beautiful and was selected by emperor Taizong (r. 626 - 649 CE) as one of his concubines when she was 14 years old. Anyone she suspected of disloyalty, for any reason, was banished or executed. (He would camp out in the palace grounds, Clements notes, barbecuing sheep.) Cheng-qian was banished for attempted revolt, while a dissolute brother who had agreed to take part in the rebellionso long, Clements adds, as he was permitted sexual access to every musician and dancer in the palace, male or femalewas invited to commit suicide, and another of Taizongs sons was disgraced for his involvement in a different plot. We are told that through cruel manipulations, including strangulating her own infant daughter to falsely implicate Gaozong's then current barren empress, Wu Zetian replaced her as empress in 657 and dominated the rest of Gaozong's reign. In 654 CE, Wu had a daughter who died soon after birth. ." Even though there were many important and influential women throughout China's history, only one ever became the most powerful political figure in the country. 04 Mar 2023. She whispered slander from behind her sleeves, and swayed her master with vixen flirting and insisted that she was the arch manipulator of an unprecedented series of scandals that, over two reigns and many years, cleared her path to the throne. correct answers: the roman empire constructed significantly more roads and developed inland economic resources more extensively than its predecessors the roman empire integrated many Greek and Phoenician trade routes, regional products and trade cities into its own economic system 23 Feb. 2023 . He refused to cooperate well with his mother and his wife, Lady Wei, assumed too much power. Web. But 28 other consorts still stood between her and the throne. Originally published/produced in China, 18th century. Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. She reigned during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) and was one of the most effective and controversial monarchs in China's history. Two years later, in 712 CE, Ruizong abdicated after he saw a comet one night and, following the interpretation suggested by Taiping, took it as a sign his rule was over. Cookie Policy When he fell out of favor, he burned the building to the ground. Wu Zetian was born in Wenshi County, Shanxi Province, in 624 CE to a wealthy family. It is also generally accepted that Ruizongs wife, Empress Liu, and chief consort, Dou, were executed at Wus behest in 693 on trumped-up charges of witchcraft. Attaining that position first required Wu to engineer her escape from a nunnery after Taizongs deaththe concubines of all deceased emperors customarily had their heads shaved and were immured in convents for the rest of their lives, since it would have been an insult to the dead ruler had any other man sullied themand to return to the palace under Gaozongs protection before entrancing the new emperor, removing empress Wang and the Pure Concubine, promoting members of her own family to positions of power, and eventually establishing herself as fully her husbands equal. Yet it was this series of events that cleared the way for Gaozongs, and hence Wus, accession. She attracted the attention of many of the young men at court and one of these was the Prince Li Zhi, son of Taizong, who would become the next emperor, Gaozong. This mountain, so born of the sudden convulsion of earth, represents a calamity. In 684 Li Jingye led a revolt of those northwestern families who had been disgraced and exiled to the Yangzi Valley. These ready-to-use worksheets are perfect for teaching kids about Empress Wu, the first and only female emperor of Imperial China. Each dynasty was considered a new beginning and when Wu changed the name from Tang to Zhou she was following this tradition but went further to make it clear that she was the beginning of a completely new era by calling her reign Tianzhou ('granted by heaven'). Wu was forced to abdicate in favor of her exiled son Zhongzong and his wife Wei. Submitted by Emily Mark, published on 17 March 2016. Her patronage of Buddhism also expanded to other temples and sects, and much work was done on the cave temples at Longmen on her orders. Moreover, Wu exhibited one important characteristic that suggests that, whatever her faults, she was no despot: She acknowledged and often acted on the criticisms of loyal ministers, one of whom dared to suggest, in 701, that it was time for her to abdicate. Although Carlton's observation is accurate, the box also did provide Wu with a number of ideas for reform which came directly from the people, not government officials who would have profited from them, and which Wu implemented efficiently. She could not become an emperor under the Tang Dynasty because of the long tradition of male succession and the fact that she was not a member of the imperial family by birth. 7789. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Add to . There must also be some doubt as to whether Wu really was guilty of some of the most monstrous crimes that history has charged her with. "Empress Wu (Wu Zhao) Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. The China that Wu Zetian was born in was the Tang Dynasty (618906), a strong and unified empire after four centuries of political discord and foreign interaction. When Gaozong died in 683, she became empress dowager and ruled on behalf of two adult sons, emperors Zhongzong (r. 684, 705710) and Ruizong (r. 685689, 710712). Thank you for your help! Although this system opened government positions to a wider group than ever before, in the final stages of the process candidates continued to be judged on their appearance and speech. By the fourth century CE, the Roman Empire was at the apex of its power and strength. Mutsuhito 181. Founder of the Song Dynasty, Zhao Kuang-yin (927-976) ended the practice of frequent military coups, which had exhausted China for mor, https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/wu-zetian-624-705, Mandate from Heaven: The Tomb of Qin Shi Huang. The emperor believed her story, and Wang was demoted and imprisoned in a distant part of the palace, soon to be joined by the Pure Concubine. Empresas ICA Sociedad Controladora, S.A. de C.V. Empresa Brasileira de Aeronutica S.A. (Embraer), Emporia State University: Narrative Description, https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/empress-wu-wu-zhao. The primary and secondary sources on Wu Zetian are abundant and problematic, reflecting an almost exclusively male authorship that has portrayed her as a beautiful, calculating, brutal woman who ruled China as the only woman emperor in name and in fact. Changing the dynasty was the easier task and was accomplished by securing the approval of the Confucian establishment. Mark, E. (2016, March 17). Wu also took back lands which had been invaded by the Goturks under the reign of Taizong and distributed them so that they were not all held by the aristocrats. She particularly supported Huayan Buddhism, which regarded Vairocana Buddha as the center of the world, much as Empress Wu wished to be the center of political power. The area around Changan could not produce the amount of food required to feed the court and garri-sons, and the transportation of grain up the Yellow River, traversing the Sanmen rapids, was exceptionally expensive. This particular minister was silenced but that did not silence the rest; they just were more careful not to speak their mind in front of her. Guo, Moruo. . Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. She improved the public education system by hiring dedicated teachers and reorganizing the bureaucracy and teaching methods. In 674 CE, Gaozong took the title Tian Huang (Emperor of Heaven) and Wu changed her own to Tian Hou (Empress of Heaven). The historians always portray Wu as ruthless, conniving, scheming, and bloodthirsty, and she may have been all of these things, she may have even murdered her daughter to gain the throne, but any of these claims should only be accepted after considering their source. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Why should you weep for me?" The court followed Empress Wus example by creating an enormous statue of the Vairocana Buddha in gold and copper at the Todaiji monastery in Nara, Japans capital. To legitimize her position, Empress Wu turned mainly to Buddhism, proclaiming herself an incarnation of Maitreya (Mi-le), the Buddhist savior. World History Encyclopedia. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2007; Dora Shu-Fang Dien, Empress Wu Zetian in Fiction and in History: Female Defiance in Confucian China. In sum, within the social and political context of her time, Wu Zetian was a leader who went beyond the traditional roles of submissive wife and home-bound mother to emerge as ruler, lawmaker, and head of state and society while her second husband, lovers, and sons were relegated to less powerful positions than traditionally expected. Her mother ne Yang was of aristocratic birth with mixed Chinese and Turkic blood, the result of generations of intermarriage when five nomadic tribes overran north China and founded dynasties in the 4th to 6th centuries. Born ne Wu (first name at birth not known) in 624 in Taiyuan, Shanxi province; died in 705 in Luoyang, Henan province; daughter of a high-ranking official, Wu Shihuo, and his aristocratic wife; married Emperor Taizong (r. 626649), in 640 (died 649); married Emperor Gaozong (r. 650683), in 654; children: (second marriage) Crown Prince Li Hong; Crown Prince Li Xian; Emperor Zhongzong; Emperor Ruizong; Princess Taiping ; another daughter (died in infancy). When a mountain seemed to appear following the earthquake, this was also interpreted as nature itself revolting against the reign of Wu. Uploaded by Ibolya Horvath, published on 22 February 2016. When she was an infant dressed in boy's clothes, Wu Zetian's potential for emperorship was predicted by an official. World History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom. The Tang emperor Taizong was the first to promote Wu, whom he gave the nickname Fair Flatterera reference not to her personal qualities but to the lyrics of a popular song of the day. For centuries she was excoriated by Chinese historians as an offender against a way of life. True, Taizongan old warrior-ruler so conscientious that he had official documents pasted onto his bedroom walls so that he would have something to work on if he woke in the nighthad lost his empress shortly before Wu entered the palace. The answer was to proclaim another dynasty, not by military conquest, but by interpreting omens that favored her to carry out a change of dynasties and become enthroned as a woman emperor. If so, their hopes were in vain; Empress Wu Zetian is remembered today as one of the greatest rulers in China's history. Traders from the Mediterranean and Persia also came from both the overland and maritime trade routes, where Buddhism and Central Asian culture, dress, and music reached China. She, like Lady Wei, had paid careful attention to the reign of Wu Zetian and thought she would be able to manipulate Xuanzong as her mother had Gaozong. She established a policy so that informants could be paid to travel by public transportation to report to the court. But in 705, when she was 81 years old, the combined forces of the Li-Tang family took advantage of her weakening grip on the state and removed her from power. World History Publishing is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom. had been organized in a systematic way by the year 669. and turned the, Wang Mang (45 B.C.-A.D. 23) was a Chinese statesman and emperor. Lu Zhi was an instantly recognizable villain to the people of China, and linking Wu with her through the murders worked to destroy Wu's reputation. (108). In the reign of Empress Wu, persons who entered government through the examinations were able for the first time to occupy the highest positions, even that of chief minister. 1, 1993, pp. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1994, pp. She was the daughter of Wu Shihuo, a chancellor of the Tang Dynasty. New Capital. Wu, characteristically, admired the virtuosity of Luos style and suggested he would be better employed at the imperial court. She was in very poor health anyway by this time and died a year later. Wu is said to have potentially killed her own. Shanghai: Sibu congkan ed., 1929. Zizhi tongjian [Comprehensive mirror as guide to history]. Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Liu, Xu. The Confucian dynastic system of government, based on the mandate of heaven, or the claim of heaven-sanctioned military conquest and benevolent rule, was first propounded by the Zhou Dynasty in 1045 bce and perpetuated by subsequent dynasties until 1911. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. If Wu Zetian is judged by the traditional female virtues of chastity and modesty, then she falls short of expectations. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. Theodora. Wu Zetian. One reason, as we have already had cause to note in this blog, is the official nature and lack of diversity among the sources that survive for early Chinese history; another is that imperial history was written to provide lessons for future rulers, and as such tended to be weighted heavily against usurpers (which Wu was) and anyone who offended the Confucian sensibilities of the scholars who labored over them (which Wu did simply by being a woman). Wu Zetian is the only legitimatized Empress in Chinese history. World History Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. It may be helpful to consider that there were in effect two empressesthe one who maintained a reign of terror over the innermost circle of government, and the one who ruled more benignly over 50 million Chinese commoners. Historian Kelly Carlton writes: Wu had a petition box made, which originally contained four slots: one for men to recommend themselves as officials; one where citizens might openly and anonymously criticize court decisions; one to report the supernatural, strange omens, and secret plots, and one to file accusations and grievances. Agricultural production under Wu's reign increased to an all-time high. After Gaozongs death, in 683, she remained the power behind the throne as dowager empress, manipulating a succession of her sons before, in 690, ordering the last of them to abdicate and taking power herself. Mutsuhito Wuplayed here by Li Lihuawas depicted as powerful and sexually assertive in the Shaw Brothers 1963 Hong Kong movie Empress Wu Tse-Tien. Most nations of note have had at least one great female leader. The practice of an emperor having young women as concubines was customary but when an empress decided to entertain herself with young men it was suddenly scandalous.

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